Unit I - Nature of Educational Psychology

 

UNIT I

NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY

            Etymological derivation of the word ‘Psychology’ indicates that it has its origin from two Greek words- psyche and logos. The word ‘logos’ stands for study. However, the meaning and interpretation of the word “psyche” has been in a state of change from time to time leading to subsequent changes in the ways of defining the term ‘psychology’ as may be evident from the following four stages of its evolution.

First Stage. By taking the meaning of the word ‘psyche’ as soul, psychology was first defined as the “study of soul”. The inability to define soul led to the search for a new meaning of the word ‘psyche’.

Second Stage. At this stage, the philosopher cum psychologists tried to define psychology as the “study of the mind” by giving a new meaning and interpretation to the word ‘psyche’ in the form of ‘mind’. Although the word ‘mind’ was less vague and mysterious than soul, it faced the same criticism with questions like what is mind? How can it be studied? and so on.

Third Stage. The criticism and unacceptability of the meaning of the word psyche as soul or mind led the psychologists to a new search of its proper meaning. The initiative was taken by famous psychologists like William James (1890), Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Bradford Titchener (1894) who, while interpreting psyche as consciousness, defined psychology as a study of consciousness.

Fourth Stage. In the definition of psychology the word ‘study’ was replaced by ‘science’. The first psychologist who, besides using the word science in place of study, replaced consciousness with total behaviour (conscious as well as unconscious) was the famous William Mcdougall.

“Psychology is a Science which aims to give us better understanding and control of the behaviour of the organism as a whole”.

PSYCHOLOGY - DEFINITION

Psychology is the study of human behaviour, its causes and conditions

– William McDougall

Psychology is the study of human behaviour and human relationships

-L.D.Crow and Alice Crow

Psychology is a developing positive science which enables us to study the behaviour of a living organism in relation to his environment.

FIELDS OR BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

BRANCHES OF PURE PSYCHOLOGY

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

It is relatively a large area or field of psychology which deals with the fundamental rules, principles and theories of the subject in relation to the study of the behaviour of normal adult human beings.

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

It is that branch or field of psychology which describes and explains the behaviour of abnormal people in relation to their own environment

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

This branch of psychology studies the human behaviour in relation to his social environment.

One’s behaviour as a member of the group, the process of communication and inter-personal relationship, group dynamics and social relationship etc., are studied under this branch.

EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

This branch of psychology describes and explains the ways and means of carrying out psychological experiments following scientific methods in controlled or laboratory situations for the study of mental processes and behaviour. It picks up animals, birds and human beings as subjects for these experiments.

DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY

This branch of psychology deals with the processes and products of the growth and

development of human beings at all stages of life - from conception to death– and in all the aspects of their personality.

PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

This branch of psychology describes and explains the biological and physiological basis of behaviour.

 

 

GEO-PSYCHOLOGY

This branch of psychology describes and analyses the relationship between physical environment, particularly weather, climate, soil and landscape, with behaviour.

BRANCHES OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

In this branch of psychology, we try to study the behaviour of the learner, with respect to educational environment. As a science of education, the subject matter of this branch helps in improving all the processes and products of education.

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

The abnormality and maladaptation of the behaviour leads to mental illness and diseases. A proper diagnosis of such illness and diseases is then the work of clinical psychology.

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

It is that branch of psychology which seeks application of the psychological principles, theories and techniques for the study of human behaviour in relation to the industrial environment.

LEGAL PSYCHOLOGY

It is the branch of psychology which studies the behaviour of clients, criminals etc. in their respective surroundings with the application of psychological principles and techniques.

MILITARY PSYCHOLOGY

This branch of psychology is concerned with the use of psychological and techniques in the field of military activities.

POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY

This branch of psychology deals with the use of psychological principles and techniques in studying politics and deriving political gains.

 INTROSPECTION METHOD

This is the oldest known method for the study of behaviour. In the early days of the evolution of Psychology, behaviour was studied only through a kind of self-examination of inner observation called introspection.

            The word ‘introspection’ is made up of two Latin words, intro meaning ”within” or “inward”, and ‘spiere’, meaning to “look”. Hence, introspection means looking within or looking inward. In introspection, then, one is required to get inside one’s own mind. It is a sort of self-observation in which one perceives, analyses and reports one’s own feelings and, in fact, everything that takes place in one’s mind during the course of a mental act. For example, when in a state of anxiety, fear or anger, one may be asked to determine by one’s own observation what one sensed, thought or felt at the time of experiencing that emotion.

ADVANTAGES

1.      It is a unique method of psychology which cannot be realized in other sciences like physical or social sciences.                                                                                                                                                          It gives us direct information and on-the-spot knowledge of our own mental process without involving any expenditure.

3.      It provides us required knowledge of our internal experiences and the internal behaviour of an individual can be recalled through introspection.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                DISADVANTAGES

1.      The results studied by introspection are most subjective.

2.      Mental processes are differing by their nature and cannot be detailed for introspection like material objects.

3.      Introspection can be applied satisfactorily in case of normal persons. But it cannot be applied in the case of children, abnormal human beings, animals etc.                                                                                  OBSERVATION METHOD

        Observation method may be regarded as one of the most convenient and appropriate methods for the study of human behaviour. Observation, as we know it in sciences, means knowing the environment through sense organs. In the field of psychology, it is concerned with the perception of an individual’s behaviour by the other individuals and the interpretation and analysis of the perceived behaviour by them. By this method we can infer the mental processes of other persons through the observation of their external behaviour. In fact it is an indirect approach to the study of the mental process.                     Observations may be carried out in many ways, forms and styles. Few forms and styles are given below

Formal Observation

Such an observation is carried out in quite a formal way by observing the necessary

formalities like (i) providing the information to the individual or individuals about the nature and purpose of the observation; (ii) the date, timing and place of observation; (iii) the names and introduction of the observers; the necessary pre-preparation needed on the part of the subjects for such an observation just as showing of any maintained record or preparing them or their environment for such inspection and so on.

Informal Observation

Contrary to the formal observation, informal observation is carried out in quite a spontaneous and natural way. Here no prior information about the nature, purpose, timings and place of the observation is given to the individual or individuals. They are thus caught unaware, engaging in their behavioural activities in a quite usual and natural way. In such naturalistic observational situations, we may have a realistic and true picture of the things, events, traits and characteristics of one’s behaviour.

 

Participant Observation

In this type of observation, the observer tries to observe the behaviour of an individual or individuals by joining them as an associate or participant in any of their individual or group activities. For example, he may join them in their play activities or accompany them on tour and excursion activities to closely observe them this may provide good opportunity for the observation of the behaviour of the individuals. However, it suffers from a serious limitation as the presence of an observer may obstruct the natural and spontaneous flow of the behavioural activities of those individuals.

Non-Participant Observation

This type of observation tries to do away with the above cited defect or limitation of the participant observation. Here the observer observes the behaviour in any way is being observed. For this purpose, as an observer he may take his position in such a place and in such a way that while the individuals under observation may not see him, he can clearly watch and hear, if possible, all about their behaviour in action. There may be a screen or a curtain of such a nature as can help for real observation while hiding his presence.

Steps in Observation Method

The use of the observation method for the investigation of behaviour generally requires the following four systematic steps.

Planning and Preparation for Observation

The success of an observation depends much on its proper planning and pre-preparation. This initial task requires proper attention on the following aspects.

-          What types of behavioural activities or personality traits are to be assessed through observation?

-          How the observation work is to be carried out, what type of methods or resources will be used for such observation?

-          What type of situation or environment is to be maintained for carrying out the observation work?

-          What type of difficulties or adverse situations may occur during the observation work and how can these be overcome for carrying out effective observation?

-          How can the observation results be made more reliable, informative, objective and valid?

Observation of the Behaviour

The second step is related with the actual observation work done by the observer as per planning and preparation made in the first step. As far as possible the best methods and techniques should be used here for the observation of the behaviour depending upon the purpose of observation and availability of the resources and environmental situations at the time of observation.

Analysis and Interpretation of the Observed Facts

In this third step, what is observed and recorded in terms of the behavioural or personality traits during the observation of one’s behaviour is subjected to a close analysis for deriving the necessary interpretation about his behaviour and personality.

Generalization of the Results

The interpretation made and results arrived at are then used for establishing generalized opinion, facts of principled about the occurrence of behaviour and existence of similar personality characteristics among similar individuals in similar situations. It can help us to predict behaviour in similar circumstances, search for the roots of a particular type of behaviour and study the effects of some remedial or treatment measure in the correction of a maladaptive behaviour.

Merits of Observation Method

1.      Observation method makes it possible to study the behaviour in its quite natural and original form, the way it occurs or is performed spontaneously by the subject concerned.

2.      The observation method needs to study the behaviour of an individual in its present form or state.

3.      There is greater scope for the proper verification of the derived results and conclusion reached through observation method.

4.      It is quite an economical method in terms of time, money and labour.

5.      It is possible to study the behaviour of any living organisms like plants, animals, insects, birds, besides human beings, through the application of observation method.

6.      Observation method proves helpful in carrying out the investigation of various behavioural characteristics of many individuals at particular time and occasion.

7.      It can be quite helpful in collecting not only the qualitative data but also the quantitative data.

Demerits of Observation Method

1.      Lack of trained observers

2.      Subjectivity

3.      Partial and revengeful attitude of the observer

4.      Lack of reliability and validity

5.      Difficulty in the occurrence and reoccurrence of events

6.      Total behaviour remains unexplored

7.      Difficulty in recording the observation data

CASE STUDY

“A case study includes the past history of an individual as well as his present status; it points the way towards remedial treatment”.

Objectives of the Case Study

-          Diagnosis and treatment of behavioural problems

-          To provide better guidance and counselling

Subjects of the Case Study

Creative person, Gifted or Genius, Backward or Slow learners, Delinquents or Criminals

Persons suffering from emotional, social psychological and educational problems or maladjustment, Addicted individuals, Antisocial personality, etc.

Steps

1.      Identify the behavioural problem and its present condition.

2.      Begin with an interview in which relevant biographical data are obtained from parents and friends.

3.      Collect supplementary information by administering aptitude, intelligence, interest and personality tests.

4.      Analyse the data and make a diagnosis of the problem and interpret the data to find out the causes of the problem.

5.      Make recommendations and offer guidance or suggest remedial measures.

Type of data to be collected

Identification data: Name, sex, age, date of birth, name of father, mother, address.

Statement of the problem: The problem should be stated clearly.

Family History: Father’s education, occupation and income, Mother’s education, occupation and income, sibling inter-relationships, home physical condition,  discipline of the home.

School history: Date of entry, classes attended, attendance, his attitude towards classes, teachers and subjects.

Social history and contacts: Religious background, participation in social, cultural, religious, political activities and gang affiliation.

Health and Physical history: age of walking, talking, physical defects like sense organ deficiencies, speech defects, illness.

Recreational interests: Participation in leisure time activities, hobbies and special interests

Personality traits: Happy or unhappy, attitude towards sex, emotional maturity.

To cover all aspects information should be collected from all sources. A large number of tools are used to collect information. These include school records, interviews with the child, his parents and others.

Advantages

1.      It gives us a complete picture of the child under study.

2.      An individual is studied from different angles-social, economical, cultural, physical etc.,

3.      Causes of maladjustment are revealed clearly. Based on the causes suitable remedial measures are possible.

4.      Case study usually concludes with a change or growth in student’s behaviour.

Disadvantages

1.      It is very expensive

2.      It is time consuming and elaborate

3.      It needs expertise for diagnosis purposes.

4.      The problem studied is unique and typical to a single individual. The findings cannot be generalised to similar individuals.

INTERVIEW

The term interview means ‘conversation with a purpose’. An interview is a face to face interaction in which the interviewer and the interviewee carry on some conversation with some specific purpose.

A series conversation directed to definite purpose other than satisfaction in the conversation itself is an interview- Bingham and Moor.

Types of interview

1.      Structured and Standardized Interview

2.      Unstructured and Non-Standardized Interview

Structured and Standardized Interview

In such a format the interview is structured as well as standardized well in advance before it is put to use for getting information from individuals as per the need of the survey study. This is done by taking care of the following:

-          Selection of appropriate questions to be put to the individuals.

-          Deciding about the order and sequence of the asked questions.

-          To decide on the type of answer or responses for an asked question that will be able to provide the required information in the light of the objectives of the study.

Unstructured and Non-Standardized Interview

In this type of an interview, the interviewer neither possesses the pre-prepared set numbers of questions with him for getting the individual’s response nor does he have a set of prior decision about the evaluation of their responses in terms of the objectives of the study. The interviewer is totally free to ask any type of questions to the subject to get the desired information. He may go to any depth to seek such information.

STEPS IN INTERVIEW

Preparation for the Interview

The following pre-preparation on the part of interviewer may prove quite helpful in the proper application of the interview instrument in carrying out a survey.

-          Be definite about the objectives of the interview.

-          Ensure that the physical and psychological conditions in which the interview is to be held is properly checked so that the respondent and interviewer do not feel uncomfortable.

-          Ensure that the respondent feels as natural and spontaneous as possible for providing desired information.

-          Have proper arrangement for recording the responses of the respondents.

Taking an Interview

The following essential points should be kept in mind while taking an interview:

-          Interviewer must introduce themselves with necessary legitimate identification as an interviewer to the respondent.

-          Interviewer must explain the purpose of interview by being as definite and short as possible.

-          He must give proper time to the respondent to get ready to be interviewed

-          Ask the questions very carefully but in a spontaneous and informal way, surely in the manner and order as planned.

-          Don’t dominate the conversation during the interview.

-          Use the silent probe technique for getting adequate responses.

-          Encourage the respondent by providing direct encouragement.

-          Ask for the desired clarification, if needed, by putting questions in some other ways or repeating question.

-          Try to accept the responses and reactions of the respondent in their original form and have its record as adequately as possible.

Closure of the Interview

The following things may be kept in mind at this final stage:

-          Ensure optimum realisation of the objectives of the interview

-          The information collected should be as complete as possible.

-          Thank the respondent for allowing you to take his interview.

-          Try to draw necessary conclusion from the recorded information and responses of the interview for realising the objective of your study.

MERITS

(i)                 It provides face-to-face contact or relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee.

(ii)               Cent per cent answers of the questions put to the individual are obtained through an interview.

(iii)             By establishing proper rapport, there is very little danger of not getting answers to the questions and, moreover, one can get most confidential information from the individual, which otherwise he may have hesitated to reveal.

(iv)             Interview is relatively a more flexible tool.

LIMITATION

(i)                 An interview is often held in artificial situation. Therefore, the behaviour as investigated may not be typical or representative of his usual behaviour.

(ii)               It suffers from the subjective bias of the interviewer.

(iii)             There is no safeguard to stop the individual to hide his feelings or to respond in terms of elective answers.

(iv)             It needs a well trained competent interviewer.

(v)               It is costly in terms of labour, time and money.

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY – MEANING AND DEFINITION

Educational psychology is nothing but one of the branches of applied psychology. It is an attempt to apply the knowledge of psychology to the field of education. It consists of the application of psychological principles and techniques to human behaviour in educational situations. In other words, educational psychology is a study of the experiences and behaviour of the learner in relation to educational environment.

Skinner defines it as: “Educational Psychology is that branch of Psychology which deals with teaching and learning”.

Crow and Crow put it as: “Educational Psychology describes and explains the learning experiences of an individual from birth through old age”.

 

NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

1.      Educational Psychology is an applied branch of the subject psychology. By applying the principles and techniques of psychology, it tries to study the behaviour and experiences of the pupils.

2.      While psychology deals with the behaviour of all walks of life, educational psychology limits its study to the behaviour of the pupil in relation to educational environment.

3.      It gives necessary knowledge and skill for giving education to the pupils in a satisfactory way.

4.      It is an applied positive science.

5.      Educational psychology is not a perfect science. The human behaviour is unpredictable. It is more variable and less reliable. Therefore educational psychology , the applied behavioural science, cannot claim objectivity, exactness and validity as claimed by natural science.

6.       It employs scientific methods and adopts scientific approach to study the behaviour of an individual in educational environment. Therefore, it is proper to call its nature as scientific.

SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Educational psychology deals with the behaviour of the learner in educational situations (only). Therefore, it becomes imperative that educational psychology limits itself within the four walls of the teaching-learning process and educational environment. It must try to solve the problems evolving in actual teaching-learning situations and help the individual involved in this process.

The key factors involved in an educational process may be listed as below:

1.      Learner or Pupil.

2.      Learning experiences.

3.      Learning process.

4.      Learning situations or environment.

5.      Teacher.

The subject matter of education psychology, if it is at all necessary to draw its boundaries, revolves round these five pivots mentioned above.

Learner. The total subject matter of educational psychology primarily revolves around this factor – learner. The innate abilities and capacities of the individuals, individual differences and their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious behaviour of the learner and characteristic of his growth and development at each stage from his childhood to adulthood.

Learning experiences. Educational psychology helps in deciding the kinds of learning experiences desirable at different stages of growth and development of the learner so that these experiences can be acquired with a greater ease and satisfaction. In this area, educational psychology has the subject matter which facilitates the selection of the desirable experiences for the learner.

Learning processes. In this area, topics such as laws, principles and theories of learning, remembering and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking and reasoning process, problem solving, transfer of training, ways and means of effective learning and so on are given. 

Learning situation or environment. Topics like classroom climate and group dynamics, techniques and aids which facilitate learning, evaluation techniques and practice and guidance and counselling which help in the smooth functioning of the teaching-learning process, come under the purview of this pivot.

Teacher. It emphasizes the need of knowing the self for a teacher to play his role properly in the process of education. It discusses his conflicts, motivation, anxiety, adjustment, level of aspiration, etc. Moreover, it throws light on the essential personality traits, interests, aptitudes, characteristics of effective teaching, etc. so as to inspire him to become a successful teacher.

SIGNIFICANCE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

TEACHERS

To Know the Learner

Educational psychology equips the teacher with the understanding of the child in the following ways:

(i)                 His interests, attitudes, aptitudes and the other acquired or innate capacities and abilities etc.

(ii)               The stage of development linked with his social; emotional, intellectual, physical and aesthetic needs.

(iii)             His level of aspiration.

(iv)             His conscious and unconscious behaviour.

(v)               His motivational behaviour.

(vi)             The aspect of his group behaviour.

(vii)           The conflicts, desires and other aspects of his mental health.

 To Select and Organise the Subject – Matter or Learning Experiences

Educational Psychology explains the characteristics of the learner at each stage of his development, the nature and laws of learning which helps the teacher to select the subject matter or learning experience.

To Suggest Art and Techniques of Learning as Well as Teaching

Educational psychology explains the process of learning and suggests the means for effective and enduring learning. It also suggests that no single method or technique is suitable for all kinds of learners in different circumstances. A teacher should select a proper device or method according to the learning situations he faces.

To Arrange Learning Situations or Environment

The knowledge of educational psychology equips the teacher to take care of the desirable learning situations and environment. Where should individual learning or self-study be implemented and when is group learning or project work suitable, it is suggested by educational psychology.

To Acquaint Oneself with the Mechanism of Heredity and Environment

The knowledge of the role played by heredity and environment in the process of growth and development of child is very essential for the teacher. Based on this he can weigh their relative importance and take a balanced decision for his work.

Helping in Maintaining Discipline

Knowledge of educational psychology helps the teacher to have a creative type of discipline as it acquaints him with the nature of the child, his strengths and weaknesses, his interests and aptitudes, etc. on one hand and the art and techniques of teaching and learning on the other.

Rendering Guidance Services

With the knowledge of educational psychology at his command, he is well aware of the methods of behavioural assessment and appraisal. He can better diagnose the abilities, interests and aptitudes of his pupils and consequently have an idea of the direction and speed of their development.

Helping in Evaluation and Assessment

In educational psychology, as applied behavioural science, evaluation, measurement and appraisal find its place, which make the teacher well-equipped in the task of evaluation with proper professional skill.

Solving Classroom Problems

The study of the characteristics of problem children, the dynamics of the group, behavioural characteristics and adjustment etc. equip the teacher to solve the actual classroom problems.

Knowing About Oneself

Knowledge of educational psychology helps the teacher know about himself. His own behaviour pattern, personality characteristics, likes and dislikes, motivation, anxiety, conflicts, adjustment, etc. are all revealed to him.

LEARNER

1.      Educational Psychology may help the learner in the task of knowing one’s self.

2.          The theories, principles and techniques related to motivation, ways of learning and remembering may     help them well in their tasks of learning

3.      The knowledge of attention may help them in attending to their studies and learning processes as         effectively as possible.

4.      The knowledge of group dynamics and group behavior may help them to adjust and merge their         behavior according to the needs of the group.

5.      The study of mechanism of heredity and environment helps them to know the role of heredity and     environmental forces in shaping and moulding their ways of learning behaving, growth and     development.

6.      The learner can make optimum use of the better learning environment after learning the role of favourable and unfavourable conditions for learning.

7.      The theory of remembering and forgetting may help the learner to learn, retain, reproduce and thus fully utilize the fruits of learning.

8.      The knowledge of transfer of learning may provide them skill for getting help from their past and related learning in their present learning and problem solving behavior of the future.

9.      It helps them to equip with the facts and principles of behavior modification.

10.  Educational psychology makes the learner aware of the developmental stages of human life and the needs and characteristics of the learners at these specific stages of life.

11.  It makes the learner realize the importance and facts related to the all-round growth and development of personality in order to become a successful learner.